Cultural ecosystem services from the afforestation of rice terraces and farmland: Emerging services as an alternative to monoculturalization

•Preservation of farmland is not the only way to sustain satoyama landscapes.•Afforestation in satoyama can take place sustaining the supply of cultural services.•Afforested areas support biodiversity compared with the abandoned agricultural land.•Production of NTFPs and tourism and educational activities were key elements. Conventionally, forests and rice terraces are regarded as separate elements, and their interactions are largely overlooked. Afforestation of rice terraces has been regarded as a “failure” and is almost a taboo among households and policy-makers. We analyze the ecological interactions of afforestation for charcoal making and mushroom (shiitake, Lentinula edodes) production in former rice terraces and other types of farmland in the socio-ecological production/interacted landscape called satoyama, which is characterized by a mosaic distribution of land use. The study counters the argument that the preservation of farmland is the only way to sustain landscapes, biodiversity, and cultural ecosystem services; it contributes to the understanding of the impact of afforestation on the production of traditional non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and the practices of cultural forests. To understand the impact of afforestation, this study focuses on afforestation in the traditional cyclical use of cultural forests (known as satoyama) in Noto and Kunisaki, which are culturally important sites listed among the Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems. This study analyzed quantitative data, which included land use data from aerial photos, ecological data from afforestation sites in Noto, and a survey of shiitake producers in Kunisaki. Despite the conversion of farmland, afforestation in satoyama can take place without diminishing the supply of cultural ecosystem services, facilitating the sustainable development of communities. Afforestation can maintain agricultural output by increasing the production of NTFPs. Afforested areas become educational sites where ecosystem services and the role of forests in satoyama landscapes can be studied. Traditional knowledge of ecosystem service provision and landscape management in forests and NTFP can be shared among tourists and participants in forest restoration. Tourists can explore surrounding cultural sites as the afforestation of cultural forests leads to the development of connections with historical walking paths. Furthermore, afforestation can generate more biodiversity benefits than the abandonm