Knowing-through-Making in Chemistry and Biology A Study of Comparative Epistemology

The epistemological idea according to which knowledge can and perhaps must be gained by the making of something new, has played a central role in Western philosophy for about two Millennia. While largely unknown in the theory-focused philosophy of physics/science prevailing nowadays, it was crucial for the development of both modern chemistry and biology, from synthetic chemistry to genetics and synthetic biology. Rather than discarding that as technology, or relabeling it as 'techno-science', this paper takes knowing-through-making as an epistemological principle of science proper and analyzes its role in the history of philosophy, chemistry, and biology up to the presence. It argues for comparative epistemology of science, here for a comparison between chemistry and biology, to develop a better understanding of the similarities and differences of the sciences, rather than lump them altogether and treat them according to one's favorite discipline, which has usually been physics. Taking knowing-through-making seriously also requires a new integration in philosophy of science that includes epistemology (knowing), ontology (making something new), and ethics (the normative implications of changing the world).