Emerging biofabrication approaches for gastrointestinal organoids towards patient specific cancer models

Tissue engineered organoids are simple biomodels that can emulate the structural and functional complexity of specific organs. Here, we review developments in three-dimensional (3D) artificial cell constructs to model gastrointestinal dynamics towards cancer diagnosis. We describe bottom-up approaches to fabricate close-packed cell aggregates, from the use of biochemical and physical cues to guide the self-assembly of organoids, to the use of engineering approaches, including 3D printing/additive manufacturing and external field-driven protocols. Finally, we outline the main challenges and possible risks regarding the potential translation of gastrointestinal organoids from laboratory settings to patient-specific models in clinical applications. •Organoids can be constructed using adult differentiated cells or stem cells to model healthy and cancer tissues.•Physical and biochemical cues can induce the self-assembly and differentiation of organoids.•Active fabrication, including 3d printing and external field driven assembly offer design flexibility and large throughput.•Advances in Gastrointestinal organoid fabrication will accelerate clinical translation of personalized medicine.