A comprehensive review on polymeric hydrogel and its composite: Matrices of choice for bone and cartilage tissue engineering

[Display omitted] The need of tissue and organ for transplantation to repair or replace damaged tissues is significantly higher than the availability of donated organs. Tissue engineering that develops functional substitutes for damaged tissues and organs via employing a combination of 3D biomaterials, supportive bioactive molecules, and/or living cells followed by in vitro culture and/or in vivo implantation, therefore, has attracted much attention in engineering the substitutes. Among 3D biomaterials, hydrogel materials have been extensively explored as matrices for skeletal regeneration because of their biocompatibility, tailorable mechanical properties, flexibility in fabrication, and ability to encapsulate cells and bioactive factors for their sustained, localized and controlled presentation. This review focuses on polymeric hydrogels and theirs composites for both bone and cartilage regeneration, including required properties, design and fabrication, functioned as bared biomaterials or delivery vehicles of bioactive molecules and/or cells together with remaining challenges and future perspectives, emphasizing on the last few years.