Intracellular co‐localization of Trypanosoma cruzi and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS): evidence for dual pathway of iNOS induction

Evidence is presented from studies in vitro and in vivo for a dual pathway of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) induction during Trypanosoma cruzi infection, one of which is interferon (IFN)‐γ dependent and the other not. In vitro, the IFN‐γ‐dependent iNOS induction decreases parasite multiplication, and is in vivo associated with protection. iNOS induced by this pathway mediated a high NO output and showed a diffuse, cytoplasmic immunostaining in IFN‐γ‐activated macrophages in vitro as well as in cell infiltrates or infected tissues. Surprisingly, in such tissues, iNOS co‐localized with parasite nests, and by immunoelectromicroscopy, iNOS was demonstrated on the parasite surface. iNOS co‐localization with parasites was also seen in tissues from T. cruzi‐infected IFN‐γ receptor (R) knockout mice suggesting an IFN‐γ‐independent pathway of induction. However, no cytoplasmic iNOS was seen in inflammatory infiltrates of these tissues. IFN‐γR−/− mice displayed a dramatically enhanced susceptibility to infection with T. cruzi, diminished accumulation of iNOS mRNA in skeletal muscle and spleen cells, and reduced release of NO and per‐oxynitrite. Expression of iNOS around intracellular parasites was also observed after infection of peritoneal macrophages or L‐929 fibroblasts in vitro in the absence of other exogenous stimuli. A time‐dependent NO release and enhanced accumulation of iNOS mRNA also was observed in infected peritoneal cells and fibroblasts. Cultured T. cruzi amastigotes, trypomastigotes, and epimastigotes were not labeled by the anti‐iNOS antibodies and contained no iNOS mRNA, indicating that the iNOS detected actually originated from the mammalian cell. A pathogenic effect of low NO levels is suggested by the arresting effect of NOS inhibitors and the enhancing consequences of low concentrations of NO donors on intracellular parasite multiplication.