Heavy metals in five commonly consumed fish species from River Swat, Pakistan, and their implications for human health using multiple risk assessment approaches

This study analyzed the levels of heavy metals bioaccumulation in commonly consumed riverine fish species, including G. cavia, T. macrolepis, G. gotyla, S. plagiostomus, and M. armatus from River Swat in Pakistan, and quantify their potential risk to children and adults in general and fisherfolk communities using multiple pollution and risk assessment approaches. The highest metal detected by inductive coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was Zn, which ranged from 49.61 to 116.83 mg/kg, followed by Fe (19.25–101.33 mg/kg) > Mn (5.25–40.35 mg/kg) > Cr (3.05–14.59 mg/kg) > Ni (4.26–11.80 mg/kg) > Al (1.59–12.25 mg/kg) > Cu (1.24–8.59 mg/kg) > Pb (0.29–1.95 mg/kg) > Co (0.08–0.46 mg/kg) > Cd (0.01–0.29 mg/kg), demonstrating consistent fluctuation with the safe recommendations of global regulatory bodies. The average bioaccumulation factor (BAF) values in the examined fish species were high (BAF > 5000) for Pb, Zn, Mn, Cu, Cr, Ni, and Cd, bioaccumulate (1000 > BAF