Complex evolution of Holocene hydroclimate, fire and vegetation revealed by molecular, minerogenic and biogenic proxies, Marais Geluk wetland, eastern Free State, South Africa

The Holocene climate history of Southern Africa remains inconclusive despite the increasing number of proxy records from the region. This might be related to the diversity of proxy records, how the proxies are interpreted, or that proxies may respond to more than one forcing (e.g. hydroclimate, fire, temperature.). Here, a 175-cm peat sequence from Free State, South Africa (28°17′53″S, 29°25′10.9″E), was analyzed using a comprehensive set of novel and conventional proxies, including isotopic (δ13C), elemental (CS-XRF), mineral (pXRD), molecular (FTIR-ATR and pyrolysis-GC-MS), grain size (Malvern 3000) and GSSC phytolith composition. The chronology was constructed through AMS radiocarbon dating (n = 7). The early Holocene (10,380–7000 cal yr BP) was characterized by an initial wet phase, followed by relative dryness, at least seasonally, evidenced by slow accumulation rates, low organic content and dominance of terrestrial vegetation in the organic matter matrix. From 7000 cal yr BP, decreasing temperatures, as evidenced in regional climate reconstructions, were associated at Marias Geluk with higher biogenic silica and organic matter content and an increase of moisture-adapted grasses, indicating increasingly mesic conditions. This trend was amplified after 6000 cal yr BP, co-occurring with a southward displacement of the ITCZ. Complex proxy dynamics were observed between 4300 and 2180 cal yr BP, with bulk organic proxies indicating a drier environment (lower carbon content, slow accumulation rates, enriched δ13C values) but the phytolith record pointing towards relatively mesic conditions. The period was also associated with increased fire frequency, that also reached the local wetland. We suggest that the period was associated with seasonally mesic conditions together with increased fire incidence, which affected some of the organic proxies. Increased fire activity was also recorded in the region, while the hydroclimatic indications differed. The last 2000 years, during which human activity is known to have increased in the region, was characterized by lower fire incidence and variable, but relatively moist, conditions. The hydroclimatic inferences for the last 2000 years are in line with previous studies from the region, but additional studies are needed to decipher if the decline in fire incidence was associated to climate forcings, human activities, or a combination of both. The multiproxy approach applied here - in particular the inclusion of FTIR-AT