Annelid functional genomics reveal the origins of bilaterian life cycles

Indirect development with an intermediate larva exists in all major animal lineages 1 , which makes larvae central to most scenarios of animal evolution 2 – 11 . Yet how larvae evolved remains disputed. Here we show that temporal shifts (that is, heterochronies) in trunk formation underpin the diversification of larvae and bilaterian life cycles. We performed chromosome-scale genome sequencing in the annelid Owenia fusiformis with transcriptomic and epigenomic profiling during the life cycles of this and two other annelids. We found that trunk development is deferred to pre-metamorphic stages in the feeding larva of O. fusiformis but starts after gastrulation in the non-feeding larva with gradual metamorphosis of Capitella teleta and the direct developing embryo of Dimorphilus gyrociliatus . Accordingly, the embryos of O. fusiformis develop first into an enlarged anterior domain that forms larval tissues and the adult head 12 . Notably, this also occurs in the so-called ‘head larvae’ of other bilaterians 13 – 17 , with which the O. fusiformis larva shows extensive transcriptomic similarities. Together, our findings suggest that the temporal decoupling of head and trunk formation, as maximally observed in head larvae, facilitated larval evolution in Bilateria. This diverges from prevailing scenarios that propose either co-option 9 , 10 or innovation 11 of gene regulatory programmes to explain larva and adult origins. Comparative chromosome-scale genome sequencing and transcriptomic and epigenomic profiling of three different species of annelid provide insight into the evolutionary origin of larvae.