Trimethylamine- N -oxide acutely increases cardiac muscle contractility

Cardiovascular disease is a major cause of morbidity and mortality among patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Trimethylamine- -oxide (TMAO), a uremic metabolite that is elevated in the setting of CKD, has been implicated as a nontraditional risk factor for cardiovascular disease. While association studies have linked elevated plasma levels of TMAO to adverse cardiovascular outcomes, its direct effect on cardiac and smooth muscle function remains to be fully elucidated. We hypothesized that pathological concentrations of TMAO would acutely increase cardiac and smooth muscle contractility. These effects may ultimately contribute to cardiac dysfunction during CKD. High levels of TMAO significantly increased paced, ex vivo human cardiac muscle biopsy contractility ( < 0.05). Similarly, TMAO augmented contractility in isolated mouse hearts ( < 0.05). Reverse perfusion of TMAO through the coronary arteries via a Langendorff apparatus also enhanced cardiac contractility ( < 0.05). In contrast, the precursor molecule, trimethylamine (TMA), did not alter contractility ( > 0.05). Multiphoton microscopy, used to capture changes in intracellular calcium in paced, adult mouse hearts ex vivo, showed that TMAO significantly increased intracellular calcium fluorescence ( < 0.05). Interestingly, acute administration of TMAO did not have a statistically significant influence on isolated aortic ring contractility ( > 0.05). We conclude that TMAO directly increases the force of cardiac contractility, which corresponds with TMAO-induced increases in intracellular calcium but does not acutely affect vascular smooth muscle or endothelial function of the aorta. It remains to be determined if this acute inotropic action on cardiac muscle is ultimately beneficial or harmful in the setting of CKD. We demonstrate for the first time that elevated concentrations of TMAO acutely augment myocardial contractile force ex vivo in both murine and human cardiac tissue. To gain mechanistic insight into the processes that led to this potentiation in cardiac contraction, we used two-photon microscopy to evaluate intracellular calcium in ex vivo whole hearts loaded with the calcium indicator dye Fluo-4. Acute treatment with TMAO resulted in increased Fluo-4 fluorescence, indicating that augmented cytosolic calcium plays a role in the effects of TMAO on force production. Lastly, TMAO did not show an effect on aortic smooth muscle contraction or relaxation properties. Our results demonstrate