Real-time fMRI neurofeedback: Progress and challenges

In February of 2012, the first international conference on real time functional magnetic resonance imaging (rtfMRI) neurofeedback was held at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETHZ), Switzerland. This review summarizes progress in the field, introduces current debates, elucidates open questions, and offers viewpoints derived from the conference. The review offers perspectives on study design, scientific and clinical applications, rtfMRI learning mechanisms and future outlook. •Substantial progress has been made in rtfMRI in recent years.•Use of rtfMRI neurofeedback in scientific investigation is just beginning.•Clinical studies are promising, with larger patient studies on the horizon.•Precise mechanisms of learning are still unknown and worth further study.•Multivariate and non-BOLD methods will be more accessible in future.