Metabolomic Profiling of Urine: Response to a Randomized, Controlled Feeding Study of Select Fruits and Vegetables, and Application to an Observational Study 1,2

Metabolomic profiles were used to characterize the effects of consuming a high-phytochemical diet compared to a diet devoid of fruits and vegetables in a randomized trial and cross-sectional study. In the trial, 8 h fasting urine from healthy men (n=5) and women (n=5) was collected after a 2-week randomized, controlled trial of 2 diet periods: a diet rich in cruciferous vegetables, citrus and soy (F&V), and a fruit- and vegetable-free (basal) diet. Among the ions found to differentiate the diets, 176 were putatively annotated with compound identifications, with 46 supported by MS/MS fragment evidence. Metabolites more abundant in the F&V diet included markers of dietary intervention (e.g., crucifers, citrus and soy), fatty acids and niacin metabolites. Ions more abundant in the basal diet included riboflavin, several acylcarnitines, and amino acid metabolites. In the cross-sectional study, we compared participants based on tertiles of crucifers, citrus and soy from 3 d food records (3DFR; n=36) and food frequency questionnaires (FFQ; n=57); intake was separately divided into tertiles of total fruit and vegetable intake for FFQ. As a group, ions individually differential between the experimental diets differentiated the observational study participants. However, only 4 ions were significant individually, differentiating the third vs. first tertile of crucifer, citrus and soy intake based on 3FDR. One of these was putatively annotated: proline betaine, a marker of citrus consumption. There were no ions significantly distinguishing tertiles by FFQ. Metabolomics assessment of controlled dietary interventions provides a more accurate and stronger characterization of diet than observational data.