Environmental, socio-demographic and behavioural determinants of malaria risk in the western Kenyan highlands: a case-control study

To identify risk factors for uncomplicated malaria in highland areas of East Africa at higher risk of malaria epidemics, in order to design appropriate interventions. Prospective, population-based, case-control study in the Nandi Hills, a highland area of western Kenya, to identify environmental, sociodemographic and behavioural factors associated with clinical malaria. Data were collected using field observation, a structured questionnaire, and a global positioning system device. We interviewed 488 cases of slide-confirmed malaria and 980 age-matched controls. Multivariate analyses associated higher malaria risk with living