Methyl succinate antagonises biguanide‐induced AMPK‐activation and death of pancreatic β‐cells through restoration of mitochondrial electron transfer

Background and purpose: Two mechanisms have been proposed to explain the insulin‐sensitising properties of metformin in peripheral tissues: (a) inhibition of electron transport chain complex I, and (b) activation of the AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK). However the relationship between these mechanisms and their contribution to β‐cell death and dysfunction in vitro, are currently unclear. Experimental approach: The effects of biguanides (metformin and phenformin) were tested on MIN6 β‐cells and primary FACS‐purified rat β‐cells. Cell metabolism was assessed biochemically and by FACS analysis, and correlated with AMPK phosphorylation state and cell viability, with or without fuel substrates. Key results: In MIN6 cells, metformin reduced mitochondrial complex I activity by up to 44% and a 25% net reduction in mitochondrial reducing potential. In rat β‐cells, metformin caused NAD(P)H accumulation above maximal glucose‐inducible levels, mimicking the effect of rotenone. Drug exposure caused phosphorylation of AMPK on Thr172 in MIN6 cell extracts, indicative of kinase activation. Methyl succinate, a complex II substrate, appeared to bypass metformin blockade of complex I. This resulted in reduced phosphorylation of AMPK, establishing a link between biguanide‐induced mitochondrial inhibition and AMPK activation. Corresponding assessment of cell death indicated that methyl succinate decreased biguanide toxicity to β‐cells in vitro. Conclusions and implications: AMPK activation can partly be attributed to metformin's inhibitory action on mitochondrial complex I. Anaplerotic fuel metabolism via complex II rescued β‐cells from metformin‐associated toxicity. We propose that utilisation of anaplerotic nutrients may reconcile in vitro and in vivo effects of metformin on the pancreatic β‐cell. British Journal of Pharmacology (2007) 150, 1031–1043. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707189