Molecular Population Genetics of the Gene Encoding the Human Fertilization Protein Zonadhesin Reveals Rapid Adaptive Evolution

A hallmark of positive selection (adaptive evolution) in protein-coding regions is a d N/ d S ratio >1, where d N is the number of nonsynonymous substitutions/nonsynonymous sites and d S is the number of synonymous substitutions/synonymous sites. Zonadhesin is a male reproductive protein localized on the sperm head, comprising many domains known to be involved in cell-cell interaction or cell adhesion. Previous studies have shown that VWD domains (homologous to the D domains of the von Willebrand factor) are involved directly in binding to the female zona pellucida (ZP) in a species-specific manner. In this study, we sequenced 47 coding exons in 12 primate species and, by using maximum-likelihood methods to determine sites under positive selection, we show that VWD2, membrane/A5 antigen mu receptor, and mucin-like domains in zonadhesin are rapidly evolving and, thus, may be involved in binding to the ZP in a species-specific manner in primates. In addition, polymorphism data from 48 human individuals revealed significant polymorphism-to-divergence heterogeneity and a significant departure from equilibrium-neutral expectations in the frequency spectrum, suggesting balancing selection and positive selection occurring in zonadhesin ( ZAN) within human populations. Finally, we observe adaptive evolution in haplotypes segregating for a frameshift mutation that was previously thought to indicate that ZAN was a potential pseudogene.