Insights Into the Cardiomodulatory Effects of Sex Hormones: Implications in Transgender Care

Transgender individuals that undergo gender-affirming hormone therapy may experience discrimination in the health care setting with a lack of access to medical personnel competent in transgender medicine. Recent evidence suggests that gender-affirming hormone therapy is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases and cardiovascular risk factors. A recent statement from the American Heart Association reinforces the importance of cardiovascular-focused clinical management and the necessity for more research into the impact of gender-affirming hormone therapy. With this in mind, this review will highlight the known cardiovascular risk factors associated with gender-affirming hormone therapy and identify potential molecular mechanisms determined from the limited animal studies that explore the role of cross-sex steroids on cardiovascular risk. The lack of data in this understudied population requires future clinical and basic research studies to inform and educate clinicians and their transgender patient population to promote precision medicine for their care to improve their quality of life.