Mycological and Multiple Mycotoxin Surveillance of Sorghum and Pearl Millet Produced by Smallholder Farmers in Namibia

Mycological (mycotoxigenic Fusarium and aflatoxigenic Aspergillus spp.) and multiple mycotoxins [aflatoxin B 1 (AFB 1 ), fumonisin B (FB), deoxynivalenol and zearalenone] surveillance was conducted on raw whole grain sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor ) and pearl millet ( Pennisetum glaucum ) produced on smallholder farms, and processed products sold at open markets in northern Namibia. Fungal contamination was determined with morphological methods as well as with quantitative Real-Time PCR (qPCR). The concentrations of multiple mycotoxins in samples were determined with liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The incidence of mycotoxigenic Fusarium spp ., Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus , as well as the concentrations of AFB 1 and FB were significantly ( P