1,25(OH) 2 D 3 disrupts glucose metabolism in prostate cancer cells leading to a truncation of the TCA cycle and inhibition of TXNIP expression

Prostate cell metabolism exhibits distinct profiles pre- and post-malignancy. The malignant metabolic shift converts prostate cells from "citrate-producing" to "citrate-oxidizing" cells, thereby enhancing glucose metabolism, a phenotype that contrasts classical tumoral Warburg metabolism. An on-line biosensor chip system (BIONAS 2500) was used to monitor metabolic changes (glycolysis and respiration) in response to the putative anti-cancer nutraceutical 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH) D ], in different prostate cancer (PCa) cell lines (LNCaP, VCaP, DU145 and PC3). LNCaP cells exhibited profound metabolic responsiveness to the treatment and thus extensive analysis of metabolism-modulating effects of 1,25(OH) D were performed, including mRNA expression analysis of key metabolic genes (e.g. GLUT1 and PDHK1), analysis of TCA cycle metabolites, glucose uptake/consumption measurements, ATP production, and mitochondrial biogenesis/activity. Altogether, data demonstrate a vivid disruption of glucose metabolism by 1,25(OH) D , illustrated by a decreased glucose uptake and an accumulation of citrate/isocitrate due to TCA cycle truncation. Depletion of glycolytic intermediates led to a consistent decrease in TXNIP expression in response to 1,25(OH) D , an effect that coincided with the activation of AMPK signaling and a reduction in c-MYC expression. Reduction in TXNIP levels in response to 1,25(OH) D was rescued by an AMPK signaling inhibitor and mimicked by a MYC inhibitor highlighting the possible involvement of both pathways in mediating 1,25(OH) D 's metabolic effects in PCa cells. Furthermore, pharmacological and genetic modulation of the androgen receptor showed similar and disparate effects on metabolic parameters compared to 1,25(OH) D treatment, highlighting the AR-independent nature of 1,25(OH) D 's metabolism-modulating effects.