Further laboratory investigations into the Relative Diffusional Growth Rate theory of thunderstorm electrification

Predictions from the Relative Diffusional Growth Rate theory have allowed us to further examine controls over the sign of graupel charge in laboratory experiments involving collisions between ice crystals and riming graupel. This has been achieved primarily through the use of two-cloud experiments in which a supercooled droplet cloud and an ice crystal cloud are mixed together. A range of crystal-cloud nucleation techniques has enabled substantial control over the preconditioning of ice crystal surface growth rates such as to control transient rapid crystal growth on mixing with a droplet cloud prior to interaction with a riming target. We have qualitatively identified the effects that crystal surface growth rate and size have on the rate of transient rapid growth after mixing. Crystals with higher surface growth rates in environments nearer to water saturation reduce the effect of transient rapid growth on mixing leading to positive graupel charging. Crystals with lower surface growth rates in environments nearer to ice saturation enhance transient rapid growth on mixing – particularly for smaller crystal sizes – to promote negative graupel charging. This is consistent with the Relative Diffusional Growth Rate theory which has been developed from many laboratory studies and shows that in collisions between ice particles, the surface growing faster by diffusion charges positively. Using both the shortest and longest nucleation techniques developed, it was possible to extend negative charging to approximately −20°C and −14°C respectively. Being able to control cloud microphysics and determine its effect on charge sign has led to the conclusion that numerical models of thunderstorm charge development need to take account of the wide range of specific microphysical conditions and their effects on cloud particle charging throughout many regions and the lifetime of a thunderstorm. We also provide evidence in support of new interpretations of the results of other researchers by using predictions of the Relative Diffusional Growth Rate theory to enable the development of experimental techniques to promote negative graupel charging to record high temperatures, and consequently allow negative charging at any sub-zero temperature applicable to thunderstorms.