Peptides and central neural regulation of the circulation

The classical humoral mechanisms involved in the maintenance of blood pressure and in circulatory regulation are the sympathoadrenal catecholamines and the peptides angiotensin II and vasopressin. Evidence for a further role of norepinephrine and more recently epinephrine in central cardiovascular regulation has built up over the last 20-25 years. Intrinsic catecholaminergic neuron pathways have been identified with cell bodies in the brain stem and midbrain and extensive but discrete projections to many areas involved in blood pressure control including hypothalamus, brain stem, and spinal cord.