Heavy metals in human hair samples from Austria and Italy: influence of sex and smoking habits

Hair samples from 79 young healthy adults from Vienna (Austria) and Rome (Italy) were analyzed for As, Cd, Co, Cr, Ni and Pb by ICP-MS. No differences were found between the two locations except for chromium, which was significantly higher in the Viennese population ( P < 0.001). In both cities male hair contained higher arsenic ( P < 0.001) and lower cadmium ( P < 0.05) levels than female hair, and in Vienna lead concentrations were lower in males ( P < 0.05). Striking differences appeared when smokers were compared with non-smokers. Geometric means (μg/g) of smokers versus non-smokers were: arsenic 0.081 vs. 0.065, cadmium 0.075 vs. 0.038 ( P < 0.05), cobalt 0.025 vs. 0.010 ( P < 0.05), chromium 0.84 vs. 0.72 ( P < 0.05), lead 3.42 vs. 1.47 ( P < 0.001) and nickel 0.64 vs. 0.32 ( P < 0.005). Consideration of a large number of biological and behavioural factors minimizes bias inherent in unmatched sample composition.