Predispersal seed-predation by insects in the Venezuelan Central Plain: Overall patterns and traits that influence its biology and taxonomic groups

Predispersal seed predation (PSP) by insects was studied in a plant community of the Venezuelan Central Plain (VCP). The main goal was to examine to what extent vegetation structure and fruit–seed attributes determined the incidence of PSP by insects at the community level. We studied a total of 187 species from 59 families, in five habitat types. The proportion of seed-predated plant species ( N=89; 47.6% of the total) was explained by different factors such as the abundance of legume families, plant species richness, fruit dehiscence, seed biomass, and starch content. Coleoptera was the most diverse taxonomic order of insect seed predators, with Bruchidae and Curculionidae showing the largest number of genera and species, followed by Lepidoptera (Pyralidae). Bruchidae and Pyralidae, but not Curculionidae, tended to be separated according to vegetation attributes, such as vegetation structure and flowering and fruiting phenology. In addition, Bruchidae was associated with dehiscent fruits, legumes, epizoochory, and granivory, whereas Curculionidae was more related with indehiscent fruits and endozoochory, and Pyralidae with abiotic seed dispersal. Bruchid larvae tended to prey upon single seeds, whereas larvae of Lycaenidae usually preyed upon more than one seed per fruit; Curculionidae did not show any clear pattern on this. One larva developing in a single seed (Type I) was the most common type of PSP, closely followed by one or more larvae developing outside seeds within the fruit (Type II). Type III (seed predation by adult insects inside the fruit) was the least common. Type I appears to occur most frequently in climbers, in the forest–savanna transition habitat, and in those cases in which insect adults emerged during the rainy season. By contrast, Types II and III tended to be associated with annual herbs, the lowest stratum (0.05–0.6 m), and disturbed areas. Moreover, Type I was usually found in samaras, drupes, and indehiscent fruits, whereas Type II and Type III were more commonly observed in capsules. Type I and Type II seeds differed in their nutritional composition, which in turn appears to affect seed predation specialization. The number of insect seed predator species and plant richness per habitat were positively correlated. The number of seed predator species was associated with the abundance of trees and climbers because more complex plant life forms offer a large variety of resources, woody species frequently had fruits and seeds larger