Molecular phylogenetic evidence for multiple gains or losses of ant mutualism within the aphid genus Chaitophorus

Mutualism with ants is suspected to be a highly labile trait within homopteran evolution. We used molecular phylogenetic evidence to test whether the mutualism has multiple origins within a single aphid genus. We constructed a molecular phylogeny of 15 Chaitophorus Koch (Hemiptera: Aphidoidea) species, using mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase I and II sequences. Ant tending evolved, or was lost, at least five times during Chaitophorus evolution. Parametric bootstrapping rejected the hypothesis of a single origin of ant tending in this genus. Further, the Chaitophorus made at least two host genus switches from poplars ( Populus) to willow ( Salix), and four switches in feeding position, from leaf feeding to stem feeding or vice versa. This is the first phylogenetic confirmation that ant tending is an evolutionarily labile trait in aphids.