Cyclical Generation and Degeneration of Organs in a Colonial Urochordate Involves Crosstalk between Old and New: A Model for Development and Regeneration

Botryllus schlosseri is a colonial marine urochordate in which all adult organisms (called zooids) in a colony die synchronously by apoptosis (programmed cell death) in cyclical fashion. During this death phase called takeover, cell corpses within the dying organism are engulfed by circulating phagocytic cells. The “old” zooids and their organs are resorbed within 24–36 h (programmed cell removal). This process coincides temporally with the growth of asexually derived primary buds, that harbor a small number of undifferentiated cells, into mature zooids containing functional organs and tissues with the same body plan as adult zooids from which they budded. Within these colonies, all zooids share a ramifying network of extracorporeal blood vessels embedded in a gelatinous tunic. The underlying mechanisms regulating programmed cell death and programmed cell removal in this organism are unknown. In this study, we extirpated buds or zooids from B. schlosseri colonies in order to investigate the interplay that exists between buds, zooids, and the vascular system during takeover. Our findings indicate that, in the complete absence of buds (budectomy), organs from adult zooids underwent programmed cell death but were markedly impaired in their ability to be resorbed despite engulfment of zooid-derived cell corpses by phagocytes. However, when buds were removed from only half of the flower-shaped systems of zooids in a colony (hemibudectomy), the budectomized zooids were completely resorbed within 36–48 h following onset of programmed cell death. Furthermore, if hemibudectomies were carried out by using small colonies, leaving only a single functional bud, zooids from the old generation were also resorbed, albeit delayed to 48–60 h following onset of programmed cell death. This bud eventually reached functional maturity, but grew significantly larger in size than any control zooid, and exhibited hyperplasia. This finding strongly suggested that components of the dying zooid viscera could be reutilized by the developing buds, possibly as part of a colony-wide recycling mechanism. In order to test this hypothesis, zooids were surgically removed (zooidectomy) at the onset of takeover, and bud growth was quantitatively determined. In these zooidectomized colonies, bud growth was severely curtailed. In most solitary, long-lived animals, organs and tissues are maintained by processes of continual death and removal of aging cells counterbalanced by regeneration with stem