Schistosomes: the road from host–parasite interactions to vaccines in clinical trials

Insights over recent years into the interactions between helminths, including schistosomes, and the immune system have generated new concepts in immunology and significant advances in vaccine strategies. Here, we report recent advances that substantially increase our understanding of the nature of the host innate and adaptive responses to schistosomes and on strategies elaborated by the parasite to manipulate such responses. We also describe the long road that has allowed us to move from the identification of an anti-schistosome vaccine candidate, a 28 kDa glutathione- S-transferase, to its recent evaluation in human clinical trials.