Paradoxical Effects in Political Systems

Paradoxical effects often complicate public policy, contrary to expectation or intent. Some are unavoidable; effective actions require constructs that simplify the more complex, and what is omitted often yields unexpected effects. This exclusion of information is increased by shared societal self-deceptions and further heightened by large scale traumatization. Risk of negative paradox can be lessened by modified causal reasoning, e.g. replacing absolute principles with "presumptions" that respect opposing forces. Several vital dilemmas emerge: defining collective identity in the face of uncertainty; confronting the myths that worsen paradox but foster social cohesion; and paradoxes inherent in social cooperation and the containment of human evil.