Auroral ecosystem services: A cascade model and investigation of co-production processes

•Ecosystem services cascade model developed for auroral ecosystem services.•Co-production is important for enabling the benefits of auroral ecosystem services.•Bridges the ecosystem service, geosystem service and exosystem service concepts.•Geophysical properties, processes and functions can be impacted by the anthroposphere.•Highlights the importance of value pluralism in future primary valuation studies. This paper serves as an initial exploration of the stages involved in the formation of auroral ecosystem services (ES) and interactions between the geosphere, biosphere and anthroposphere. This is performed through the development of an auroral ES cascade model with the integration of four main co-production stages: (i) value attribution, (ii) mobilization of ES potential, (iii) value appropriation, and (iv) commercialization. The cascade model is expanded upon in detail by using examples from published academic and grey literature, highlighting the demand for capital inputs and strengthening the conceptual understanding of human-nature relationships in the context of auroral ES. The co-production stages illustrate the importance of action on the demand-side in order for the supply of benefits from auroral ES to be delivered. The potential for feedback from the anthroposphere into geophysical properties, processes and functions through anthropogenic space weather and artificial particle precipitation from the Van Allen Radiation Belts via ionospheric heating and low frequency radio wave generation is emphasized. Additionally, feedback via policy and decision making from the anthroposphere into the biosphere and geosphere is highlighted, especially in the context of managing light pollution and artificial space weather. The discussion considers the potential implications of the expanded model, in addition to the valuation of auroral ES across three value domains (monetary, socio-cultural and biophysical) and the potential use of such information in decision-making, followed by reflecting on the potential limitations of the expanded model.