When microplastics meet microalgae: Unveiling the dynamic formation of aggregates and their impact on toxicity and environmental health

•Aggregation was affected by physical, chemical and biological factors.•Aggregates enhances the adsorption of Cu(II) compared to pristine MPs.•Microalgae colonization cause the aging of MPs and increase their toxicity to microalgae.•Effect of aged MPs and Cu(II) was more antagonistic to algae than pristine MPs with Cu(II). Microplastics (MPs) commonly coexist with microalgae in aquatic environments, can heteroaggregate during their interaction, and potentially affect the migration and impacts of MPs in aquatic environments. The hetero-aggregation may also influence the fate of other pollutants through MPs' adsorption or alter their aquatic toxicity. Here, we explored the hetero-aggregation process and its key driving mechanism that occurred between green microalga Chlorella vulgaris (with a cell size of 2–10 μm) and two types of MPs (polystyrene and polylactide, 613 μm). Furthermore, we investigated the environmental impacts of the microplastics-microalgae aggregates (MPs-microalgae aggregates) by comparing their adsorption of Cu(II) with that of pristine MPs and evaluating the effects of hetero-aggregation on MPs aging and their toxicity to microalgae. Our results indicated that microalgal colonization occurred on the surface of MPs, possibly through electrostatic interactions, hole-filling, hydrophilic interactions, and algae-bacteria symbiosis. The hetero-aggregation led to a stronger Cu(II) adsorption by MPs-microalgae aggregates than pristine MPs due to electrostatic interactions, coordination, complexation, and ion exchange. Exposure to either MPs (pristine or aged) or Cu(II) inhibited the cell growth of C. vulgaris, while the integrated biomarker response (IBR) showed more pronounced inhibitory effects resulting from aged MPs compared to pristine MPs and an antagonistic effect on microalgae was caused by the co-exposure to MPs and Cu(II). These findings suggest that the hetero-aggregation of MPs and microalgae may alter their environmental fates and co-pollutant toxicity. [Display omitted]