Hydrogeochemical investigation and water quality assessment of the Indus River in the semiarid region of Ladakh, India

The decline in water quality, particularly in river water, is a significant concern, especially in semi-arid areas and tourist destinations such as Ladakh. Periodic assessment of water quality could be a crucial step for ensuring its potability and serve as a foundation for formulating effective policies for sustainable water resource management. Consequently, this research aimed to analyze the periodic variations in the water quality of Indus River for domestic and agricultural use, focusing on the impact of geochemical processes within the basin. Various physicochemical parameters namely temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, turbidity, total dissolved solids, total hardness, total alkalinity, K+, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl−, SO42−, SiO2, HCO3−, CO32−, and NO3− for sixty-five water samples from seven key locations were assessed during three distinct periods: April–May (early melting period, EMP), July–August (peak melting period, PMP), and October–November (late melting period, LMP), 2023. The ion contents found were in the following order: Ca2+ > Na+ > Mg2+ > K+ and HCO3− > SO42− > Cl− > SiO2 > NO3− > F−, reflecting Ca-HCO3 water types. However, temporal and spatial variation in ion content and hydrochemical facies were observed when the water moved downstream and confluences with the Zanskar River to give calcium‑magnesium-sulphate facies. Water quality indices- Canadian Council of the Ministers of the Environment Water Quality Index (CCMEWQI) and Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index (WAWQI) were employed to assess the water quality over these periods, identify long-term trends, evaluate the water quality status, and provide insights into immediate conditions. WAWQI values recorded for EMP (56.89–509.53), PMP (289.82–3419.23), and LMP (55.16–159.14) found were poor to unsuitable for drinking while using CCMEWQI, it was in the marginal range. Additionally, the Wilcox diagram and other important irrigational indices like Percent sodium, Sodium Absorption Ratio, Residual Sodium Carbonate, Magnesium hazard, Permeability Index, Kelly's ratio, Ryznar stability index indicated the suitability of the water for agricultural use in all the periods. Apart from arsenic (54 μg/L), all other heavy metal ions measured were within the permissible limits according to the Heavy Metal Pollution index. Principal Component Analysis identified different principal components contributing to the hydrochemistry of the river water whereas correlational analysis was conducted to