Enhancing zinc biofortification and mitigating cadmium toxicity in soil–earthworm–spinach systems using different zinc sources

Cadmium (Cd) pollution poses significant threats to soil organisms and human health by contaminating the food chain. This study aimed to assess the impact of various concentrations (50, 250, and 500 mg·kg–1) of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs), bulk ZnO, and ZnSO4 on morphological changes and toxic effects of Cd in the presence of earthworms and spinach. The results showed that Zn application markedly improved spinach growth parameters (such as fresh weight, plant height, root length, and root-specific surface area) and root morphology while significantly reducing Cd concentration and Cd bioconcentration factors (BCF-Cd) in spinach and earthworms, with ZnO NPs exhibiting the most pronounced effects. Earthworm, spinach root, and shoot Cd concentration decreased by 82.3 %, 77.0 %, and 75.6 %, respectively, compared to CK. Sequential-step extraction (BCR) analysis revealed a shift in soil Cd from stable to available forms, consistent with the available Cd (DTPA-Cd) results. All Zn treatments significantly reduced Cd accumulation, alleviated Cd-induced stress, and promoted spinach growth, with ZnO NPs demonstrating the highest Cd reduction and Zn bioaugmentation efficiencies compared to bulk ZnO and ZnSO4 at equivalent concentrations. Therefore, ZnO NPs offer a safer and more effective option for agricultural production and soil heavy metal pollution management than other Zn fertilizers. [Display omitted] ●Zn and Cd exhibit antagonistic effects in biological absorption.●The addition of Zn significantly mitigates the biological stress caused by Cd.●ZnO NPs demonstrating superior Cd reduction and Zn bioaugmentation efficiencies.●Zn facilitated the transformation of soil Cd from a stable state to an available.