Translation Rates and Protein Folding

[Display omitted] •Evolutionary adjusted pace of translation is important to maintain correct protein folding.•Naturally occurring synonymous variants in human genome that do not change protein sequence can alter protein conformation.•Charged patches in nascent peptide can modulate the pace of protein synthesis and folding or elicit translation arrest.•Interactions of growing nascent chains with the tunnel walls delay protein folding. The mRNA coding sequence defines not only the amino acid sequence of the protein, but also the speed at which the ribosomes move along the mRNA while making the protein. The non-uniform local kinetics – denoted as translational rhythm – is similar among mRNAs coding for related protein folds. Deviations from this conserved rhythm can result in protein misfolding. In this review we summarize the experimental evidence demonstrating how local translation rates affect cotranslational protein folding, with the focus on the synonymous codons and patches of charged residues in the nascent peptide as best-studied examples. Alterations in nascent protein conformations due to disturbed translational rhythm can persist off the ribosome, as demonstrated by the effects of synonymous codon variants of several disease-related proteins. Charged amino acid patches in nascent chains also modulate translation and cotranslational protein folding, and can abrogate translation when placed at the N-terminus of the nascent peptide. During cotranslational folding, incomplete nascent chains navigate through a unique conformational landscape in which earlier intermediate states become inaccessible as the nascent peptide grows. Precisely tuned local translation rates, as well as interactions with the ribosome, guide the folding pathway towards the native structure, whereas deviations from the natural translation rhythm may favor pathways leading to trapped misfolded states. Deciphering the ‘folding code’ of the mRNA will contribute to understanding the diseases caused by protein misfolding and to rational protein design.