Centrifuging of hydrometeors and debris in tornadoes : Radar-reflectivity patterns and wind-measurement errors

High-resolution Doppler radar observations of tornadoes reveal a distinctive tornado-scale signature with the following properties: a reflectivity minimum aloft inside the tornado core (described previously as an 'eye'), a high-reflectivity tube aloft that is slightly wider than the tornado core, and a tapering of this high-reflectivity tube near the ground. The results of simple one-dimensional and two-dimensional models demonstrate how these characteristics develop. Important processes in the models include centrifugal ejection of hydrometeors and/or debris by the rotating flow and recycling of some objects by the near-surface inflow and updraft. Doppler radars sample the motion of objects within the tornado rather than the actual airflow. Since objects move at different speeds and along different trajectories than the air, error is introduced into kinematic analyses of tornadoes based on radar observations. In a steady, axisymmetric tornado, objects move outward relative to the air and move more slowly than the air in the tangential direction; in addition, the vertical air-relative speed of an object is less than it is in still air. The differences between air motion and object motion are greater for objects with greater characteristic fall speeds (i.e., larger, denser objects) and can have magnitudes of tens of meters per second. Estimates of these differences for specified object and tornado characteristics can be obtained from an approximation of the one-dimensional model. Doppler On Wheels observations of the 30 May 1998 Spencer, South Dakota, tornado demonstrate how the apparent tornado structure can change when the radar-scatterer type changes. When the Spencer tornado entered the town and started lofting debris, changes occurred in the Doppler velocity and reflectivity fields that are consistent with an increase in mean scatterer size.