Butterfly species respond differently to climate warming and land use change in the northern Alps

Climate change has a worldwide impact on biodiversity and ecosystem functions, in particular by causing shifts in species distributions and changes in species communities. Here, we analyse altitudinal range shifts of 30,604 lowland butterfly and burnet moth records from 119 species over the past seven decades across the federal state of Salzburg (northern Austria) spanning an altitudinal gradient of >2500 m. For each species, we compiled species-specific traits on their ecology, behaviour, and life-cycle. During the study period, the butterflies have shifted their average occurrence and also lower and upper occurrence limits >300 m uphill. This shift is particularly obvious for the last ten years. Habitat generalist and mobile species exhibited strongest and habitat specialist and sedentary species weakest shifts. Our results underline that the effects of climate change have a strong and currently increasing impact on the patterns of species distribution and local community composition. Hence, we confirm the observation that ubiquistic, mobile species with a broad ecological amplitude can cope better with environmental changes than specialist and sedentary species. Furthermore, the strong changes in land use in lowland areas might additionally enhanced this up-hill shift. Box and Whiskers plots of butterfly altitudinal distribution within seven study decades. Different colours of boxes indicate significant differences (P