Investigating spatial distribution of fluoride in groundwater with respect to hydro-geochemical characteristics and associated probabilistic health risk in Baruipur block of West Bengal, India

Fluoride (F−) enrichment in groundwater of the lower Gangetic plain in West Bengal, India is a major concern. Fluoride contamination and its toxicity were reported earlier in this region; however, limited evidence was available on the precise site of contamination, hydro-geochemical attributions of F− mobilization and probabilistic health risk caused by fluoridated groundwater. The present study addresses the research gap by exploring the spatial distribution and physico-chemical parameters of fluoridated groundwater along with the depth-wise sedimental distribution of F−. Approximately, 10 % of the groundwater samples (n = 824) exhibited high F− ≥ 1.5 mg/l from 5, out of 19 gram-panchayats and Baruipur municipality area and the maximum F− was observed in Dhapdhapi-II gram-panchayat with 43.7 % of samples showed ≥1.5 mg/l (n = 167). The distribution patterns of cations and anions in fluoridated groundwater were Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Fe > K+ and Cl− > HCO3− > SO42− > CO32− > NO3− > F−. Different statistical models like Piper and Gibbs diagram, Chloro Alkaline plot, Saturation index were applied to better understand the hydro-geochemical characteristics for F− leaching in groundwater. Fluoridated groundwater is of Na-Cl type which implies strong saline character. The intermediate zone between evaporation and rock dominance area controls F− mobilization along with ion-exchange process occurring between groundwater and host silicate mineral. Furthermore, saturation index proves geogenic activities related to groundwater F− mobilization. All cations present in sediment samples are closely interlinked with F− in the depth range of 0–18.3 m. Mineralogical analyses revealed that muscovite is the most responsible mineral for F− mobilization. The probabilistic health risk assessment disclosed severe health hazard in the order of infants > adults > children > teenagers through F− tainted groundwater. At P95 percentile dose, all the studied age groups showed THQ >1 from Dhapdhapi-II gram-panchayat. Supply of F− safe drinking water is required through reliable water supply strategies in the studied area. [Display omitted] •Groundwater F− distribution has wide spatial heterogeneity (range: 0.02–2.5 mg/l).•Ionic distribution pattern is Cl− > HCO3− > SO42− > CO3− > NO3− > F− and Na+ > Ca2+ > Mg2+ > Fe > K+.•Geogenic activities are responsible behind groundwater F− mobilization.•Muscovite is most responsible silicate mineral for F− leaching.•Adequate THQ was observed in the