Field variation of groundwater recharge and its uncertainty via multiple tracers' method in deep loess vadose zone

Accurate estimation of groundwater recharge is a precondition for assessing its spatial variation at different scales, especially field scale. In the field, the limitations and uncertainties of different methods are first evaluated based on site-specific conditions. In this study, we evaluated field variation in groundwater recharge via multiple tracers in the deep vadose zone on the Chinese Loess Plateau. Five deep soil profiles (approximately 20 m deep) were collected in the field. Soil water content and particle compositions were measured to analyse soil variation, and soil water isotope (3H, 18O, and 2H) and anion (NO3− and Cl−) profiles were used to estimate recharge rates. Distinct peaks in soil water isotope and nitrate profiles indicated a vertical one-dimensional water flow in the vadose zone. Although the soil water content and particle composition were moderately variable, no significant differences were observed in recharge rates among the five sites (p > 0.05) owing to the identical climate and land use. The recharge rates did not show a significant difference (p > 0.05) between different tracers' methods. However, recharge estimates by the chloride mass balance method indicated higher variations (23.5 %) than those by the peak depth method (11.2 % to 18.7 %) among five sites. Moreover, if considering the contribution of immobile water in vadose zone, groundwater recharge would be overestimated (25.4 % to 37.8 %) using the peak depth method. This study provides a favourable reference for accurate groundwater recharge and its variation evaluated using different tracers' methods in deep vadose zone. There is no significant difference in the recharge rates among five sites; and recharge rates based upon different methods do not indicate a significant difference in recharge rates (p > 0.05). However, recharge estimates by the chloride mass balance method indicated the higher variations (23.5 %) than peak depth method (11.2 % to 18.7 %) among five sites. [Display omitted] •Field diffuse recharge is observed via multiple tracers in deep vadose loess.•The uniformity of groundwater recharge is revealed at field scale despite soil variation.•Groundwater recharge estimates are comparable when using different tracer methods.•Recharge rate estimated by peak depth method show minor variation than CMB method.