Seismic design of retaining walls

The background and limitations of force-based and displacement approaches are discussed in the light of the Japanese experience following the Hyogo-ken Nambu earthquake in 1995, where a large portion of caisson walls throughout the port of Kobe were severely damaged. The nature of seismically induced wall displacement is described and techniques are outlined for use in design. A comprehensive risk-based approach for the seismic design for retaining walls is proposed, which makes use of displacement criteria defined on the basis of tolerable and disproportionate levels of damage. (Original abstract - amended)