Shoreline stabilization approaches in response to sea level rise : U.S. Experience and implications for Pacific Island and Asian Nations

Coastal erosion is a worldwide problem; it is estimated that over 70% of the world's beaches are currently experiencing erosion, and this number may approach 90% in the United States. Almost every conceivable form of shore protection has been attempted in the United States, including construction of seawalls, groins, and jetties as well as beach nourishment. The principal approach to protecting coastal property and maintaining recreational beaches in the United States today is beach nourishment. Engineering structures such as groins and seawalls have often been shown to have detrimental effects on adjacent beaches. Also, their construction and maintenance costs are quite high. Therefore, coastal communities have come to rely on a "soft" engineering solution - beach nourishment - because it is environmentally sound, aesthetically pleasing, and, so far, economically feasible. However, global warming and accelerated sea level rise will cause more rapid rates of beach loss and could make even this alternative too costly for many resort areas along the U.S. shoreline. The cost to nourish all the major recreational oceanic beaches in the United States was estimated based on various sea level rise scenarios. The beach nourishment approach involves placing enough sand on the beach to maintain stable (nonretreating) conditions in response to rising sea level. The quantity of sand required to "hold the line" is evaluated under various sea level rise scenarios from the baseline scenario to the 1-m estimate of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Beach nourishment is not a practical alternative for most Pacific island nations because sand is a scarce resource. In fact, beaches are often mined for sand for construction, contributing to beach erosion. For mainland countries, beach fill projects are more practical. Singapore was one of the first countries to use this technology in combination with building offshore breakwaters to form artificial headlands. As Western style sunbathing and the overall popularity of beaches for recreation continue to grow, beach nourishment can be expected to become a more common way to deal with sea level rise induced coastal erosion for highly developed beach resort areas.