Assessment of the groundwater quality, physicochemical composition, and human and ecological health risks in a coastal metropolitan: A case study of a residential estate in Lagos, Nigeria

Water is essential for humankind’s existence, providing food security, amongst others, as well as promoting industrial and economic development. The physicochemical composition, potentially toxic metals, water quality index, human health, and ecological risks of groundwater in a residential estate in Lagos, Nigeria, were studied to assess their possibility for drinking and domestic purposes. Groundwater samples were collected from twelve designated sites and analysed using standard methods. TDS and pH values of 5.4 ± 1.7–20.8 ± 0.84 and 5.08 ± 0.26–5.56 ± 0.57, respectively, were recorded for the groundwater samples whereas DO and BOD were detected at 4.2 ± 1.2–5.45 ± 0.52 mg O 2 /L and 2.6 ± 1.2–24.6 ± 5.7 mg/L, respectively. Additionally, water conductivity ranged from zero to 0.60 ± 0.89 µS/cm. Of the seven PTMs (Pb, Cd, Zn, Cu, Cr, Ni, & Fe) analysed, Pb was present, over the standard limit, in all the samples whereas Fe was detected below the limit in over 83.3% of the groundwater sampled. The hazard index (HI) indicated that 83.3% and 100% of the samples were within the acceptable limits, with no health risks, for the children and adult groups, respectively. WQI showed that 75.0% of the samples was of good quality and suitable for domestic purposes, with low ecological and carcinogenic health risks. The results show that the groundwater samples are good for domestic purposes but require pre-treatment to make them safe for drinking.