Occurrence, source apportionment and potential risks of selected PPCPs in groundwater used as a source of drinking water from key urban-rural settings of Pakistan

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are emerging contaminants that have been extensively used in present time to improve the living standards. Their persistence in water resources due to various anthropogenic sources such as wastewater treatment plants, pharmaceutical industries, and runoff from agricultural and livestock farms has not only threaten aquatic life but their occurrence in groundwater has also raised concerns related to humans' wellbeing. Considering this as a neglected area of research in Pakistan, a systematic monitoring study was designed to investigate their occurrence, sources, and potential environmental and human health risks in groundwater from urban-rural areas of six cities. Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) was used to analyze the collected samples preceded by solid-phase extraction. Overall, 8 out of 11 selected PPCPs were detected in groundwater samples with detection frequency ranging from 5.5–65%. Their concentrations ranged from below limit of detection (