Autonomy- and Connectedness-Oriented Behaviors of Toddlers and Mothers at Different Historical Times in Urban China

This study examined toddlers' autonomy- and connectedness-oriented behaviors and mothers' encouragement of autonomy and connectedness in two cohorts (1995 and 2008) in urban China. Observational data were collected from Chinese children and their mothers in a laboratory free play session. The results showed that compared with children in the 1995 cohort (207 children, 95 boys, Mage = 24.09 months), children in the 2008 cohort (281 children, 144 boys, Mage = 24.34 months) displayed fewer connectedness-oriented behaviors and spent more time on autonomous activities. Compared with mothers in the 1995 cohort (45% with a college education), mothers in the 2008 cohort (43.4% with a college education) were less likely to display involvement in children's activities and more likely to encourage child autonomy. The results suggest that macrolevel contexts may play an important role in shaping parenting and children's behaviors.