The photodynamic and intrinsic effects of Azure B on mitochondrial bioenergetics and the consequences of its intrinsic effects on hepatic energy metabolism

•Azure B binds to mitochondria regardless of photostimulation.•Photoactivated azure B causes the inhibition of mitochondrial bioenergetic enzymes.•Photoactivated azure B causes lipid peroxidation and GSH depletion in mitochondria.•Azure B inhibits oxidative phosphorylation even without photoactivation.•Energy-linked hepatic pathways are disrupted by azure B. The present study aimed to characterize the intrinsic and photodynamic effects of azure B (AB) on mitochondrial bioenergetics, as well as the consequences of its intrinsic effects on hepatic energy metabolism. Two experimental systems were utilized: (a) isolated rat liver mitochondria and (b) isolated perfused rat liver. AB interacted with mitochondria regardless of photostimulation, but its binding degree was reduced by mitochondrial energization. Under photostimulation, AB caused lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation and decreased the content of reduced glutathione (GSH) in mitochondria. AB impaired mitochondrial bioenergetics in at least three distinct ways: (1) uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation; (2) photoinactivation of complexes I and II; and (3) photoinactivation of the FoF1–ATP synthase complex. Without photostimulation, AB also demonstrated mitochondrial toxicity, which was characterized by the induction of lipid peroxidation, loss of inner mitochondrial membrane integrity, and uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation. The perfused rat liver experiments showed that mitochondria were one of the major targets of AB, even in intact cells. AB inhibited gluconeogenesis and ureagenesis, two biosynthetic pathways strictly dependent on intramitochondrially generated ATP. Contrariwise, AB stimulated glycogenolysis and glycolysis, which are required compensatory pathways for the inhibited oxidative phosphorylation. Similarly, AB reduced the cellular ATP content and the ATP/ADP and ATP/AMP ratios. Although the properties and severe photodynamic effects of AB on rat liver mitochondria might suggest its usefulness in PDT treatment of liver tumors, this possibility should be considered with precaution given the toxic intrinsic effects of AB on mitochondrial bioenergetics and energy-linked hepatic metabolism. [Display omitted]