Quantification and Treatment of Congestion in Heart Failure: A Clinical and Pathophysiological Overview

Renal sodium and water retention with resulting extracellular volume expansion and redistribution are hallmark features of heart failure syndromes. However, congestion assessment, monitoring, and treatment represent a real challenge in daily clinical practice. This document reviewed historical and contemporary evidence of available methods for determining volume status and discuss pharmacological aspects and pathophysiological principles that underlie diuretic use.