Amplification of DDR2 mediates sorafenib resistance through NF‐κB/c‐Rel signaling in hepatocellular carcinoma

Sorafenib was the first systemic therapy approved by the Food and Drug Administration to treat advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, sorafenib therapy is frequently accompanied by drug resistance. We aimed to explore the mechanisms of sorafenib resistance and provide feasible solutions to increase the response to sorafenib in patients with advanced HCC. The expression profile of discoidin domain receptor 2 (DDR2) in HCC tissues and cells was detected using quantitative real‐time PCR (qPCR) and western blotting assays. The effects of DDR2 on sorafenib resistance were examined using 3‐(4,5‐dimethylthiazol‐2‐yl)‐2,5‐diphenyltetrazolium bromide, colony formation, TdT‐mediated dUTP nick end labeling, and flow cytometry assays. The effect of DDR2 on the nuclear factor kappa B (NF‐κB) signaling pathway was evaluated by luciferase reporter, immunofluorescence, qPCR and flow cytometry assays. We demonstrated that DDR2 expression was dramatically upregulated in sorafenib‐resistant HCC tissues relative to sensitive tissues. Downregulation of DDR2 sensitized HCC cell lines to sorafenib cytotoxicity. Further analysis showed that DDR2 could increase the nuclear location of REL proto‐oncogene, a NF‐κB subunit, to mediate NF‐κB signaling. Blocking NF‐κB signaling using the NF‐κB signaling inhibitor, bardoxolone methyl, increased the response of HCC cells to sorafenib. Further analysis showed that DNA amplification of DDR2 is an important mechanism leading to DDR2 overexpression in HCC. Our results demonstrated that DDR2 is a potential therapeutic target in patients with HCC, and targeting DDR2 represents a promising approach to increase sorafenib sensitivity in patients with HCC.