Novel rhein integrate transphytosomes as non-invasive local therapy for osteoarthritis to ameliorate cartilage deterioration in MIA-arthritic rats

[Display omitted] •Transphytosomes, novel flexible nanovesicles are hybrid between phytosomes and transfersomes.•Transphytosomes significantly improve the transdermal delivery of rhein.•Transphytosomes showed the highest drug availability into the articular cartilage.•Rhein-transphytosomes exhibited the highest cartilage repair with the lowest OARSI score.•Rhein-transphytosomes restore the balance between catabolic and anabolic mediators. Rhein (RH), a natural chondroprotective agent, suffers from poor systemic availability (20–25%) after oral administration concomitant to side effects on the gastrointestinal tract and liver. We present a new approach for non-invasive local targeted delivery of rhein to ameliorate cartilage deterioration employing cartilage-homing phospholipids nanocarriers. This is the first work to elaborate RH loaded transphytosome (RH-T-PHY) as novel nanovesicular systems for transdermal drug delivery based on an advantageous hybrid between phytosomes and transfersomes or bilosomes. Here, we developed transphytosomes through incorporating various edge activators (EAs) such as Tween 80, Span 80 and sodium deoxycholate into the lipid bilayer of RH phytosomes to affix the flexibility. RH-T-PHY with high flexibility and entrapment efficacy showed the highest significant skin permeation compared to conventional phytosomes. Additionally, RH-T-PHY have a magnificent potential in maintaining high chondroprotective activity as demonstrated by enhanced repair, regeneration of chondrocytes and GAG formation in MIA-induced osteoarthritis (OA) rat model. Besides, histological examination of vital organs revealed the formulation safety. Confocal laser microscopy images revealed the highest drug availability in the articular cartilage of RH-T-PHY treated group. Conclusively, novel RH-T-PHY can serve as a promising alternative means for delivery of chondroprotective drugs for effective non-invasive local therapy of OA.