Effectiveness of Lateral Auditory Collision Warnings: Should Warnings Be Toward Danger or Toward Safety?

Objective The present study investigated the design of spatially oriented auditory collision-warning signals to facilitate drivers’ responses to potential collisions. Background Prior studies on collision warnings have mostly focused on manual driving. It is necessary to examine the design of collision warnings for safe takeover actions in semi-autonomous driving. Method In a video-based semi-autonomous driving scenario, participants responded to pedestrians walking across the road, with a warning tone presented in either the avoidance direction or the collision direction. The time interval between the warning tone and the potential collision was also manipulated. In Experiment 1, pedestrians always started walking from one side of the road to the other side. In Experiment 2, pedestrians appeared in the middle of the road and walked toward either side of the road. Results In Experiment 1, drivers reacted to the pedestrian faster with collision-direction warnings than with avoidance-direction warnings. In Experiment 2, the difference between the two warning directions became nonsignificant. In both experiments, shorter time intervals to potential collisions resulted in faster reactions but did not influence the effect of warning direction. Conclusion The collision-direction warnings were advantageous over the avoidance-direction warnings only when they occurred at the same lateral location as the pedestrian, indicating that this advantage was due to the capture of attention by the auditory warning signals. Application The present results indicate that drivers would benefit most when warnings occur at the side of potential collision objects rather than the direction of a desirable action during semi-autonomous driving.