Imaging manifestations of immune-related adverse effects in checkpoint inhibitor therapies: A primer for the radiologist

Immune checkpoint inhibitors are monoclonal antibodies directed against cellular pathways on T-cells to treat different types of malignancies. This new therapy can cause immune-related adverse events that can involve almost any organ system. This article will review clinical presentations, molecular mechanisms and imaging manifestations of adverse events caused by checkpoint inhibitors and also illustrate the pseudoprogression tumor response pattern. •Imaging based primer for radiologists on adverse reactions to checkpoint inhibitors•Multisystem (head and neck, brain, spine, chest, abdomen) and multimodality approach•Key imaging features for diagnosis•Recommendations for clinical management and followup imaging•With the expanding use of the checkpoint inhibitors, practicing radiologists may see the adverse events with increasing frequency