The cellular stress response and temperature: Function, regulation, and evolution

The cellular stress response (CSR) is critical for enabling organisms to cope with thermal damage to proteins, nucleic acids, and membranes. It is a graded response whose properties vary with the degree of cellular damage. Molecular damage has positive, as well as negative, function‐perturbing effects. Positive effects include crucial regulatory interactions that orchestrate involvement of the different components of the CSR. Thermally unfolded proteins signal for rapid initiation of transcription of genes encoding heat shock proteins (HSPs), central elements of the heat shock response (HSR). Thermal disruption of messenger RNA (mRNA) secondary structures in untranslated regions leads to the culling of the mRNA pool: thermally labile mRNAs for housekeeping proteins are degraded by exonucleases; heat‐resistant mRNAs for stress proteins like HSPs then can monopolize the translational apparatus. Thus, proteins and RNA function as “cellular thermometers,” and evolved differences in their thermal stabilities enable rapid initiation of the CSR whenever cell temperature rises significantly above the normal thermal range of a species. Covalent DNA damage, which may result from increased production of reactive oxygen species, is temperature‐dependent; its extent may determine cellular survival. High levels of stress that exceed capacities for molecular repair can lead to proteolysis, inhibition of cell division, and programmed cell death (apoptosis). Onset of these processes may occur later in the stress period, after initiation of the HSR, to allow HSPs opportunity to restore protein homeostasis. Delay of these energy costly processes may also result from shortfalls in availability of adenosine triphosphate and reducing power during times of peak stress. The cellular stress response (CSR) to heat stress. Heat‐induced damage to macromolecules (DNA, RNA, and proteins) elicits a cascade of actions, including (a) activation of the heat shock response (HSR; production of heat shock proteins [HSPs]), followed by chaperone (HSP)‐mediated repair of proteins; (b) upregulation of transcription of genes encoding stress‐related proteins; (c) culling of the existing messenger RNA (mRNA) pool, leading to removal of mRNAs for housekeeping proteins and preferential translation of stress mRNAs; and (d) apoptosis and blockage of cell proliferation in cases where high levels of DNA strand breakage (single‐strand breaks [SSBs] and double‐strand breaks [DSBs]) have occurred, especiall