Protein adsorption measurements on low fouling and ultralow fouling surfaces: A critical comparison of surface characterization techniques

Ultralow protein fouling behavior is a common target for new high-performance materials. Ultralow fouling is often defined based on the amount of irreversibly adsorbed protein (< 5 ng cm−2) measured by a surface ensemble averaging method. However, protein adsorption at solid interfaces is a dynamic process involving multiple steps, which may include adsorption, desorption, and irreversible protein denaturation. In order to better optimize the performance of antifouling surfaces, it is imperative to fully understand how proteins interact with surfaces, including kinetics of adsorption and desorption, conformation, stability, and amount of adsorbed proteins. Defining ultralow fouling surfaces based on a measurement at or near the limit of detection of a surface-averaged measurement may not capture all of this behavior. Single-molecule microscopy techniques can resolve individual protein-surface interactions with high temporal and spatial resolution. This information can be used to tune the properties of surfaces to better resist protein adsorption. In this work, we demonstrate how combining surface plasmon resonance, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, and single-molecule localization microscopy provides a more complete picture of protein adsorption on low fouling and ultralow fouling polyelectrolyte multilayer and polymer brush surfaces, over different regimes of protein concentration. In this case, comparing the surfaces using surface plasmon resonance alone is insufficient to rank their resistance to protein adsorption. Our results suggest a revision of the accepted definition of ultralow fouling surfaces is timely: with the advent of time-resolved studies of protein adsorption kinetics at the single-molecule level, it is neither necessary nor sufficient to rely on a surface averaging techniques to qualify ultralow fouling surfaces. Since protein adsorption is a dynamic process, understanding how surface properties affect the kinetics of protein adsorption will enable the design of future generations of advanced antifouling materials. The design of ultralow fouling surfaces is often optimized based on a single surface-averaging technique measuring the amount of irreversibly adsorbed protein. This work provides a critical comparison of alternative techniques for evaluating protein adsorption on low fouling and ultralow fouling surfaces, and demonstrates how additional information about the dynamics of protein-surface interactions at