Management of oxidative stress and other pathologies in Alzheimer’s disease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by the formation, aggregation and accumulation of amyloid beta, perturbed metal (copper, iron and zinc) homeostasis, metal-induced oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, aberrant activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and other pathologies. The aim of this review is to discuss the current therapies based on the “combination-drugs-multitargets” strategy to target multiple pathologies to block the progression of pathogenesis of AD. In addition to cholinergic and amyloid targets, a significant effort is focused on targeting the metal-induced oxidative stress component of the disease. The main focus of research is based on modifications of existing drugs with specific biological activity. Tacrine was the first AChE inhibitor to be introduced into clinical practice and has been frequently used for the design of multitarget-directed ligands. A number of hybrid compounds containing tacrine and structural moieties derived from natural sources such as flavonoids [quercetin, rutin, coumarin, gallamine, resveratrol, scutellarin, anisidine, hesperetin, (−)-epicatechin] and other molecules (melatonin, trolox) have also been applied to function as multitarget-directed ligands. Most of these hybrids are potent inhibitors of AChE and butyrylcholinesterase and also of amyloid-beta aggregation. In addition, the antioxidant functionality, represented by coumarins, melatonin and other antioxidant molecules reduces the level of oxidative stress via ROS-scavenging mechanisms, as well as via chelation of redox-active Cu and Fe, thus suppressing the formation of ROS via the Fenton reaction. Various medicinal plants are under investigation for their ability to ameliorate symptoms of AD. The therapeutic potency of huperzine A and B, ginseng, curcumin and other compounds is manifested predominantly by the inhibitory action toward AChE, antioxidant or radical-scavenging and redox metal-chelating activity, inhibition of amyloid-beta aggregation and tau-protein hyperphosphorylation and antiinflammatory activity. Flavonoids not only function as antioxidants and metal-chelating agents, but also interact with protein kinase and lipid kinase signaling pathways, and others involving mitogen-activated protein kinase, NF-kappaB and tyrosine kinase. Among the most promising group of substances with potential activity against AD are the flavonoids, including myricetin, morin, rutin, quercetin, fisetin, kaempfe