β-lactam resistance genes in bacteriophage and bacterial DNA from wastewater, river water, and irrigation water in Washington State

Our objective was to determine whether β-lactamase genes are carried within bacteriophage capsids, as a first step towards exploring the possible role of bacteriophages as vehicles for dispersal of antimicrobial resistance genes through an agricultural region of Washington State. Water samples (n = 178) from municipal wastewater treatment plants, river and irrigation canals were collected over a period of eight months. The occurrence of four β-lactam resistance gene groups (blaTEM, blaCTX-M, blaPSE and blaCMY-2) and three carbapenem resistance genes (blaKPC, blaOXA-48-like, and blaNDM) in bacterial and phage fractions of water samples was evaluated by PCR. All of the seven targeted resistance genes were detected both in wastewater and river water samples. Relatively high proportions of samples (7.3%–64.9%) positive for resistance genes were found in bacteriophage fractions of water samples compared to the bacterial fractions (5.4%–36.8%). blaOXA-48-like (57.3%) and blaTEM (64.0%) were the most prevalent antimicrobial resistance genes detected at all the sampling points. Resistance genes are commonly present in treated wastewater flowing through municipal and agricultural environments, indicating a plausible role for this water in the dissemination of antimicrobial resistance traits, including blaCTX-M. •Water from wastewater, river and canals in Washington State was sampled.•β-lactamase genes were detected in high proportions of samples.•Phage fractions of samples were more frequently positive than bacterial fractions.•blaNDM-1 was detected in over 20% of phage fractions of samples.