Fluoride ion contamination in the groundwater of Mithi sub-district, the Thar Desert, Pakistan

Groundwater samples were collected from various localities of Mithi sub-district of the Thar Desert of Pakistan and analysed for fluoride ion along with other chemical parameters. The area is mainly covered by sand dunes and kaolin/granite at variable depths. Results showed that collected water samples were severely contaminated by the presence of fluoride ion and most of the samples have higher concentration than prescribed WHO standards (1.5 mg/l) for drinking water. Fluoride ion concentrations ranged between 0.09 and 11.63 mg/l with mean and median values of 3.64 and 3.44 mg/l, respectively, in this area whereas, distribution pattern showed high concentrations in the vicinity of Islamkot and Mithi towns. The content of F − has also been correlated with other major ions found in the groundwater of the study area. The positive correlation of F − with Na + and HCO 3 − showed that the water with high Na + and HCO 3 − stabilizes F − ions in the groundwater of the Thar Desert. The pH versus F − plots signifies high fluoride concentration at higher pH values, implying that alkaline environment favours the replacement of exchangeable OH − with F − in the groundwater of Mithi area. The saturation indices (SI) of fluorite (CaF 2 ) and calcite (CaCO 3 ) in the groundwater samples showed that most of the samples are oversaturated with respect to calcite whereas majority of samples have been found under saturated with respect to fluorite. The log TDS and Na/Na+Ca ratio reflected supremacy of weathering of rocks, which promotes the availability of fluoride ions in the groundwater. Piper diagram has been used to classify the hydrofacies. In the cation triangle, all samples are Na-type, while the anion triangle reflects major dominance of Cl-type with a minor influence of HCO 3 − and SO 4 − .